Arabic calligraphy

Arabic calligraphy is the art and design of writing in various languages that use Arabic letters. Arabic writing is characterized by being connected, which makes it possible to acquire different geometric shapes through the tide, return, rotation, elevation, interlock, interference and installation. The art of calligraphy is associated with Arabic decoration, which is used to decorate mosques and palaces. It is also used in the desalination of manuscripts and books, especially copies of the Holy Quran. There has been an increase in the number of Muslim artists because of the prohibition on the portrayal of humans and animals, especially in relation to the Holy Places and the Koran.

There are many opinions on the origin of the origin of the Arabic calligraphy, which are centered around two main sources of derivation: First: Arab historians have adopted it as a derivative of the predicate line, of which four types are known: the Safavid line relative to Safa, Stone, and calligraphy relative to Lahian, and the line Sabai or Hamiri, which arrived from Yemen to the confusion and then Anbar and to the Hijaz. Second: European historians have adopted it and say that the Arabic line is derived from the ring of the Aramaic line, not the predecessors. They say that the Phoenician line is the Aramaic line, from which the Indian is born, the Persian, the Hebrew, the Sabra, the Syriac and the Nabataean. They said that the Arabic calligraphy is divided into two parts: the first is Kofi, which is taken from a Syriac type called the Surangly, and the second is from the Nabataeans.

The Arabs received the writing and they are in a state of extreme Bedouin. They did not have any reasons for stability. They did not have to innovate in the line that reached them, and they did not reach the line of art only when the Arabs had a state where there were many centers of culture. It happened in Kufa, Basra, Sham and Egypt. The artist went to the line to improve it and to create new types of it. Therefore, the Arabic calligraphy was known before the era of prophecy in Nabati, Heiri and Anbari, because it came to the land of the Arabs with the trade of these territories, and when the Arabic calligraphy settled in Mecca and Medina and began Spread to other destinations known as Makki and civil. The Arabic calligraphy did not receive a measure of renewal and mastery except in Iraq and Syria, after the expansion of the Islamic state in the Umayyad era and then inherited by the Abbasid state, in which the movement of urbanism was active and the writings appeared on the vessels and antiques.

In ancient Islamic times, the lines were called one third and a half and two thirds, as they were attributed to the objects they used as the signature line or added to the inventor as the presidential relative to the inventor. The lines were no longer called the names of the cities except in the rare few. The Arabs and Muslims invented many types of Arabic fonts, most notably: the Kufic line, the oldest line, the line of copies used in the line of the Koran, the third line, and so called relative to the thickness of the pen, and the line of the patch is the most Arabic fonts traded and used, and Diwani line,, And the Persian line relative to the knight.

History of Arabic Calligraphy
There are many opinions about the origin of Arabic writing. It was narrated that Ibn Abbas said that the first person to write in Arabic was the Prophet of God, Isma’il ibn Ibrahim al-Khalil, on his pronunciation and logic. It is said that God pronounces it in Arabic, which is twenty-four years old. Al-Hathli narrated that the first to put the line and writing are Nafis and Ndr and Taima and Doma of the children of Ismail bin Ibrahim, and they put them connected to each other until the thousand and the blind, and separated Hmisa and Kedar are two children of Ismail. In his book Al-Sira al-Halabi, Burhan al-Din al-Halabi said that the first person to write in Arabic from Ould Ismail was Nizar ibn Ma’ad ibn Adnan. Abu al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Mas’udi said that the first of those who laid the line were the sons of the fortified son of Jandal ibn Yaasab ibn Madin. They were taken down by Adnan ibn Ad-ibn Adad and their names were Abjad, Hawz, Hatti, Kalman, Sufis and Qurshat. When they found letters that were not in their names, Al-Rawafif, which is Al-Tha ‘, Al-Khaleel, Al-Za’al, Al-Dhad, Al-Ghaaf and Ghayn, and the sum of which is “Al-Thaqq”. It was said that they are the kings of Madin and that their chief is to Kaman, and that they perished on the day of the awliya, (1) and they are the people of the Prophet of Allah Shu’aib. It was said that the first of the line was placed three of the tribe of Tayeh inhabited Anbar are: Maramir bin Marra and Aslam bin Sidra and Amer bin Jadra put the line, and measured the spelling of Arabic on the satire of Syriac, the first put images of letters, and the second chapter and arrived,, Which is cut because it is cut off from the Hamiri line. It was said that the people of Anbar learned the line from the people of confusion, and the opposite was said.

It is said that the line of Hamiri moved to confusion during the reign of Manatharah, and began their rule about 195 BC. M, and Hamiriya is the line of the people of Yemen, the people of the Prophet of God Hood, and they returned the first and returned Erm, and their writing was called Almsnad Hamiri, said Taqi al – Din Maqrizi pen predicate Is the first pen of donkey pens and kings returned. In the appendix to the first part of the history of Ibn Khaldun (T: 806 AH / 1406 AD) of the writer Chakib Arslan: « The scholars of the Frankish, including Orientalist Professor Moritz of Germany that the origin of the writing Hieroglyphs were in Yemen, he believes that the Yemenis invented the writing and not the Phoenicians The Greeks took the writing about the Phoenicians, and the Romans took them, so it is the Arabs who invented the writing in this world, and this is the reason they created Civil ». Ibn Khaldun said in his introduction in the chapter that the line and writing are among the human beings : « The calligraphy was very old and informed of the judgments and perfection and quality in the state of adoption, because of the civilization and luxury, which is called the line Hamri, and moved to El Hira, The Al-Mundhir state is considered to be the successor to the Arabists in the land of Iraq. The line did not have the proficiency as it was in the succession of the two countries. It is said that the one who learned to write from al-Hira is Sufyan ibn Umayya, and it is said that the war of Umayya was taken from Aslam ibn Sadra, which is possible. And the nearest of those who went to learn from the hands of the people of Iraq, saying their poet: the people of Iraq’s yard if… walked all the line and pen. It is a distant saying that because if they entered the Iraqi arena, they still have their interest in the Bedouin, and the line of urban trades. It is said that the people of the Hijaz, but they learned from the confusion, and informed the people of the puzzlement of the adoption and donkey is the most appropriate words, and was written by Hammer called Almsnad separate letters, and were prevented from learning only with their permission, and donkeys learned Egypt to write Arabic, but they were not good Al-Sanayeh If you sign the Bedouins, then it is not a court of doctrine, nor is it inclined to be perfect. The writing of the Arabs was nomadic or close to their writing of this era, or we say that their writing for this era is the best industry, because these are closer to the civilization and the intersection of the points and the States, but the worst were the oldest in the Bedouin and far from the urban people of Yemen and the people of Iraq and the people of Syria and Egypt, The Arab first of Islam is not very to the purpose of strictness, mastery and proficiency, nor to mediate the place of the Arabs of Badawah and brutality and after the trades.

Arabic calligraphy
Hafni Bey Nassif pointed out that the opinion of Arab historians is that the series of the Arabic calligraphy series are three: the first is the Egyptian calligraphy, which is one of the origins of the oriental writings; it is the oldest of three types: the hieroglyphic, which is specific to the priests and the religion service. General of the scribes of the people, the simplest types of Egyptian lines. Second, the Phoenician line is related to Phenicia, and they were the most active people in trade with the Egyptians, so they learned the letters of their book and then put themselves letters of complexity for use in commercial correspondence. They took fifteen letters from the Egyptians and added some letters to them. It was famous for them in Asia and Europe. The third line is the predicate line. Four types are known: the Safavid line relative to Safa, the Tamoudi line relative to the Thamud of the inhabitants of the stone, the Levantine line relative to Lahyan, and the Saber or Hamiri line that reached Yemen from Al-Anbar and then to Al-Hijaz.

As for the opinion of the historians of the Frankish, they make the third link of the Aramaic line, not the predicate, and they said that the Phoenician line was born of four lines, the ancient Greek and from which the entire European lines and the Coptic line, the ancient Hebrew and the Samaritan line, were born. And from which the Indian breed of all kinds, Persian, ancient and Hebrew, and the box of destruction, Syriac and Nabataean. They said that the Arabic calligraphy is divided into two parts: the first is Kofi, which is taken from a Syriac type called the Surangly, and the second is from the Nabataeans.

The stages of the development of the calligraphy

The Pre-Islamic Period
The Arabs have known the line since ancient times and before the alphabet found in Ugarit Ras Shamra thousands of years ago. In the Arabian Peninsula and in different places, there were Arabic writings written in the line of the Musnad, so researchers and historians considered it the first Arabic pen and the original line of the people of Yemen, and they call it Hamir line. Some of the people of Yemen continued to write in Musnad after Islam and read its texts. When Islam came, the people of Makkah wrote in their own handwriting. The letters are different from the letters of Al-Misnad and the Arabic pen or the Arabic calligraphy, the Arabic book or the Arabic script.

The Book of Revelation was written by the people of Makkah for the revelation of the revelation among them, and the pen of Mecca became the official pen of the Muslims, and the death sentence was then ruled. The Arabs forgot it, until the orientalists sent it back to the regular writings. The line was followed by the Aramaic line attributed to the tribe of Erm, a line that entered the Arabian Peninsula with the entry of early missionaries in Nazareth, and later became the pen of the Eastern Churches. There is a Tmoudi pen relative to the Thamud folk. And the Levian pen relative to the Lahian tribe. And the Safavid or Safavid pen, which is known as the Safavid script relative to the land of Safat, the land where the first written writing was found in this pen.

The Prophetic Age
Islam came in a nation where illiteracy prevails, and the ego complex is spread during the period described by the historians in Jahlia. It is the last that the Arabs acquired from the spirit of civilizational and civil life before Islam. Islam was the starting point since the first verse of the Holy Quran : Read, the Prophet Muhammad called for the introduction of science, and urges companions to learn.

It was among those who learned the writing of Bishr bin Abdul Malik and Harb bin Umayya group of boys including: Omar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, Talha bin Ubaidullah, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Ubaida Amer bin Jarrah, Maawiya ibn Abi Sufyan and Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan. Muslims took care of the teaching of the writing and publishing, and since the Great Battle of Badr, the Muslims captured a group of Quraish and there were more than seventy men, and wanted to redeem themselves with money, before the Prophet Mohammed ransom of the illiterate, and made the ransom writer ten children of the city. Akrama ibn Abi Jahl said the redemption of the people of Badr four thousand, so that the man to fight to know the line of what is stable of the danger, and the emergence of usefulness and impact. The Prophet Mohammed took a book of the Companions to write the revelation and write the letters that he sent to the kings, including the four caliphs, Zaid bin Thabit and Maawiya ibn Abi Sufyan. They were writing to his hands in revelation and others. The book of the Prophet Muhammad was written in the Qur’an by the Persian scripture

Al-Rashidi era
The state of development of the Arabic calligraphy continued at the beginning of the era of the Caliphs as it was in the era of the Prophet. Zayd ibn Thabit wrote the Qur’aan in the calligraphy in the era of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq in the first collection of the Quran. The Companions were writing the Qur’an in bold handwriting along with the line. As Uthman ibn Affan collected the Quran, the second collection, after the melody and the difference in the reading of the Quran spread, and he said: ” You have a difference in me, so you will be forgiven. The task of copying the Koran was chosen by four: Zaid ibn Thabit, Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, Sa’id ibn al – ‘As, and ‘ Abd al -Rahmaan ibn al-Harith ibn Hisham, and ordered them to write the Koran on one letter. The most prominent feature of the Uthman Qur’an was the Ottoman drawing, which continued to be an advantage for writing the Koran until the present.

When the Quran was sent to Mecca, Shammam, Yemen, Basra, Kufa and elsewhere, the people hurried to copy it, competed in its writing, and refined its situation. This is called the interrogator, the al-Rukhi, the Makki, the visual, the kufic, the isfahani, and the Iraqi (three types: the round, the triangle and the mat, the meaning of the original being born with another in one abdomen. And the line is hard and Tajwaid and made and Almawal and Rsv and Salwati and lizard, and Qirramuz, which generated the Persian line.

Ottoman drawing
he word of the Quranic drawing is written on the Qur’anic writing, which is written by the Mus’haf of Othman, and this drawing was contrary to some of the words as required by the rules of spelling and not in accordance with the operative pronunciation. The Ottoman drawing defines the term as ” Writing the words of the Holy Quran and its letters, and also expressed in: a flag known as the violation of the line of the Ottoman Koran to the fundamentals of the standard drawing, and this term refers to the Koran copied by the Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, the Koran that sent to the Islamic countries, and was stripped of points and form, His Quran was frequently quoted and interpreted In recent Arda did not copy its recitation. The reason for naming this drawing is the Ottoman painting. First, it is Othman who ordered the transfer of this drawing and its copies in the Koran, which he copied and distributed to the people in the places and ordered them to burn the others. This circular issued by him is the one who wrote this ratio to him. Imam al – Baghawi said: «The Koran, which settled on it is the latest offers to the Messenger of Allah peace be upon him, ordered Osman to copy in the Koran, and the gathering of people, and I go to what else is absolutely the substance of the dispute ».

Secondly: The drawing in which the Mus-haf was performed has a special method of distribution, so that it is possible to draw all the repeated Qur’aan readings. Thirdly: Uthman ibn Affan collected all the people on one of the seven letters on which the Qur’aan came down. This is the letter on which the Holy Qur’aan came down, and without it, so he made a demand for this drawing, which was written by the general of the Qur’aan. Osman has kept them reading the rest of the seven letters in accordance with the drawing, and explains that Makki bin Abi Talib, saying: «The Koran was written on one letter and the line is likely to more than one character, as it was not reduced or adjusted, The six remaining characters », Ibn Taymiyyah says:« The reason for the diversity of readings in what the line of the Koran Is the gasification of the street and to justify it to them, as it refers to the Sunnah and followers, not to opinion and innovation.

As for the rules of Ottoman drawing, the original in the written to be compatible with the operative, without increase or lack, and no change or change, taking into account the beginning and stop it, and separation and connection, has been paved for scientists fundamentals and rules, has been violated in some characters the line of the Koran Imam and therefore it was said: two lines not measured by the line of the Koran and the line of offers.

Umayyad Period
The calligraphy in the Umayyad era made significant progress in the era of the Prophet and the era of the Middle Caliphs, and for the first time, the calligrapher and his profession came into being, although the letters were devoid of dots at the beginning of this era. In the forefront of which is the famous calligrapher Qutbah the editor, who invented a new line that is a mixture of the Hijazi and Kufi lines. This line was called the Galilee font, which was used by Qutbah and its contemporaries, or came after it in writing on the doors of the mosques and its niches. The Galilee line was not all the creation of a pole, but it created several other lines, in which the best of which was the line of the tumar, which is smaller than its predecessor, as well as the invention of the pole of the third line and the two-thirds line around 136 AH.

The line of Altomar means the newspaper line and the collection of queens, which the Turks called a third line. The calligraphers in the Umayyad era and for the first time line beautiful lines decorate the palaces, mosques and taverns, and write these lines in the records of the young state and its modern dynasties, they won favor with the princes and caliphs, and made them at the forefront of their councils, The beautiful modern lines of this era are adorned with domes, minarets, mosques and palaces, which were decorated with mosaics, engraved wood, silver, metal and glass, not only in the capital Damascus, but in the most distant cities and holes. This is clear after more than fourteen centuries in the mosque Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi, and the ruins of Hisham, and the mihrab of the Al-Aqsa Mosque and its dome.

Points and configuration
Since the writing of the Koran of Osman, has been free of points and formation, and continued for more than forty years, and during this period expanded Fotouh, and entered many nations do not speak Arabic in Islam, Vtvst skull among people, and a lot of melody, even among the Arabs themselves because of the frequent mixing and emancipation For the Ajam, and because the Koran is not the fall of fear of the governors of the Muslims to him to address the melody and distortion.

The situation continued until Ali ibn Abi Talib took over the caliphate. Abu al-Aswad al-Dawali complained to Ali about this phenomenon. He taught him the principles of grammar. He said to him: “The name indicates the name and the verb. This indicates the movement of the name and the character, which is neither. As such. ”

It was said that the first to turn to the points of the Koran is Ziad ibn Abi, and in it that Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan wrote to Ziad when he was the guardian of Basra to send his son Obeid God, and when entered by his grandfather mourned in his words, wrote to Ziad blame him for the occurrence of his son The melody, and sent Ziyad to Abu al-Aswad al-Dawali saying to him: ” This red has multiplied and corrupted from the tongues of the Arabs. If something was put in place by the people, 14: If your father passed by the black and read something from the Koran, and the melody of it, when passed by the man read a verse of the Koran and melody In this, it was based on Abu al-Aswad, and he said: “The face of God is that he should disown his messenger.” He said to Ziad: «I have answered to what I asked, and I saw that I start to express the Koran ».

Arrangement of Arabic letters
The Arabic characters are set to twenty-eight characters. These letters were subjected to different arrangements that differed in the quality and criteria used:

Abbasid period
What almost calligraphers Aterpon on the throne of the line in Damascus, even taking the Abbasids throne succession, opted attention of the calligraphers and artists to Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid state, and it was natural to go to calligraphers as he traveled writers and scientists, to be closer to the caliph and the state and receive their reward creativity of the caliphs, princes and wealthy And others.

If the Umayyad era was a period of establishment and building, the Abbasid era was a period of prosperity, prosperity and generosity. In this age, every art should flourish, and every one who possesses the lowest artistic or scientific queen should prevail. In the Abbasid era, the famous calligrapher Dahak bin Ajlan became famous in the succession of Abu Abbas al-Saffah and the calligrapher Ishaq ibn Hammad in the disputes of Abu Jaafar al-Mansur and Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Mahdi, until the line reached eleven. The calligraphers’ pens and lines in the era of these calligraphers were so numerous that they were striking examples in showing their kingdom in the Arabic script. When he came era Haroon Rashid and safe matured science, art and knowledge, and claimed the calligraphers Ajodon their lines, and compete in, even increased lines on the twenty lines, including the newly created including the developer, calligrapher Ibrahim Timberline has developed a third line of the two – thirds line more than they invented calligrapher stitch editor, such as the end of theThird century AH invented calligrapher Joseph Timberline ‘s brother Ibrahim Timberline a new line called the greater trochanter line, where he was impressed Fadl ibn Sahl, Minister of safe, so he went to circulate to all Bowl books published by the caliphate, they shot him the title line of the Governing Body, while the spread at all strata of society as the line The calligrapher, the editor-in-chief, managed to take Ibrahim al-Shagari, and to succeed in inventing a new line called the half line, from which new lines emerged.

Came Abu Ali Mohammed bin Muqlah Minister (272 – 328 e) Controlling Arabic calligraphy, and put his standards, and excelled in the line third until it reached its peak, and hit the proverbial, as the wisest line investigator, and free gold line and well done, and excelled in the patcher line and basil, And distinguished the line of the text, and created the line of the present version and introduced it in the writings of the Caliphate, and left the son of a stick in the line and pen engineering message. In the artistic circles, Ibn Qatat added that he was the minister of three successors, and for various periods, he was the minister of Jaafar al-Muqtadir in Allah, and al- Qaher in Allah and Radi in God. And when he was angry by the Caliph Radi GodHe cut off his right hand, but he did not leave the line, but he tied his hand on the pen when he began to write, and then he wrote with his left hand, so he wrote as he wrote. Principality line lasted until Ibn Muqlah the fifth century AH, Ali bin Hilal nickname known as Ibn doorman, who died in 413 AH, the way Vhzb son eyeball in line, and established a school for the line, and invented the line known line Rihani.

Calligraphy in Andalusia
In Al – Andalus Shami line use along with signed line Cyrene in Massahvhm and Rhallm and correspondence, and the Andalusians developed a line of Cyrene, and introduced the new good ductility, the advantage of the familiar and Oldoa line they called the Andalusian line or verse, although the first two Muslims were writing calligraphy Levantine. The emergence of the Andalusian line in the Umayyad era manifestation of independence from the Orient, says Ibn Khaldun : « distinguish king of Andalusia Umayyads, Vtmizoa Bohawwalhm in civilization and Sanai, and marked Andalusian class as their line is known for drawing this covenant ». The era of integration between Andalusians and Moroccans was an age dominated by the Andalusian line and its spread in the Maghreb countries. The Andalusian line did not end with the end of Islamic Andalusia, but it remained a reference, then adopted in Morocco, which embraced the heritage of Andalusia, including the line and related to it. Andalusian calligraphers dominated the Kairouani under the Almoravid rule. In this era, calligraphers appeared on the Andalusian-Moroccan-Andalucian route, settling in Morocco. The contention of the Andalusian line of Kairouani led to competition between the two lines.

Fatimid period
The Fatimids in Egypt took great care of the Arabic calligraphy and wrote it on the minarets, domes, palaces, palaces of the caliphs and the shrines of the scholars. They decorated the façades of the baths, public libraries, horse rivets, prison facades and public places. The Fatimid line and the Fatimid kufic line appeared in Egypt. On other lines.

Egypt flourished during the Fatimid period culturally, and the book revived industry, decoration, binding, gilding and marketing. In fact, during the Fatimid era, the inventors managed to invent the liquid ink pen, which was distinguished by a small ink tank with a feather. It is no different from modern liquid ink pens. The inventor presented this pen to the Fatimid caliph, but he did not circulate it or make other pens and sell it to other people. Egyptian society was surrounded by various types of fine-made calligraphy, whose blades were about ten centimeters long, with very small Koranic passages placed in the pocket, or perhaps attached to the throat.

Ayyubid and Mamluk periods
When the Ayyubids seized Cairo as the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate, the Thuluth line was popular in the Ayyubid era, which some call the Ayyubid line, decorated with the doors of the great mosques, the role of the Koran and the Ayyubid schools. The roundabouts also began to replace the kufic lines on the facades of palaces and buildings.

In the Mamluk period, the kufic line reappeared after the Mamluks adopted a decorative element, but the kufic line was widely spread, decorated with the doors of mosques, gouges and Mamluk schools. In the Mamluk period, the lines derived from the Grand Tumar line were renewed : the Thuluth line and the two-thirds line (the line of records), which were inscribed with government records in the Mamluk period.

Ottoman Period
The Ottomans inherited the line from the Tabriz School, which prospered not only in line, but also in the book industry, and was active in the field of paper, calligraphy, decoration, binding, painting, gilding and so on. His Iranian teachers had credit for this superiority that the Ottomans had gained, and they became followers later. They became an independent school of distinguished renown in the Thulth line. The great Turkish calligraphers had many copies of the Qur’an in the Turkish museums, especially in the Museum of Awqaf in Istanbul. This line is decoration and binding. The calligraphers started the line of small Koranic books placed in the pocket, and since the Ottoman state is a Sunni Islamic caliphate, it encouraged the spread of the Arabic calligraphy, so that the Turks disguised themselves as the Arabic calligraphy, and there is no one in Turkey who can not understand the language of the Koran Easily. The calligraphers received the respect of the caliphs. They received favors from them, gave them gifts, made them close to them, and assigned them to work in state offices, at high salaries.

The mosques of the Ottoman Caliphate were filled with magnificent lines and beautiful decorations by the Turkish and non-Turkish calligraphers attracted by the Ottoman Caliphate to work in the capital of the state at high salaries. In the late period of this caliphate, calligraphers became famous for the Islamic world from their shining to the Maghreb, and they gave us their wonderful paintings. The first is the calligrapher Hamdallah Amassi, who is considered the imam of the Ottoman calligraphers; the second is calligrapher Hafiz Usman, nicknamed Jalaluddin, who wrote twenty five manuscripts with his hand. It has been printed in the rest of the Arab and Islamic countries, especially in Damascus has adopted two editions of the printing press and the printing press and the Hashemite printing press, and for more than half a century printed dozens of editions, some marginalized by the interpretation of the Jalalin, or separated parts in independent editions; Turkish mosques, the mosques of the Levant and others still have their metal paintings or numbered on the plaster walls or carved on the marble.

The Ottoman era is the era of the maturity of the Arabic calligraphy in later times, and is almost called the golden age of the Arabic calligraphy. For many reasons, the Ottoman Empire was a large country that brought together the different nationalities, tongues and colors of mankind under the umbrella of Islam. Haram, so encouraged lines and decorations and inscriptions to fill the vacuum forbidden photography. The Caliphs brought scholars, writers and innovators closer to them, and attracted them to the capital of their caliphate. They were rewarded with various gifts and gifts. Some caliphs were taught by calligraphers and took the principles of Arabic calligraphy, including the students of Sultan Mustafa II and Sultan Ahmed III by calligrapher Hafiz Osman. calligrapher’s Sultan receives four hundred pounds Ottoman gold per month, and reached the Ottomans of luxury making with creative work in their palaces inscriptions and decorations and fees amounts Aalah.o could calligraphers under the honoring state for them, and Agdagaha gifts on them, to invent new lines as Patch and tughra and Diwani Aldioni obvious and others.

Calligraphy in Iran
Iranian artists were able to create in the graphic art of the contents of the Persian and Arabic manuscripts, and succeeded in improving the font and improve and develop, the Iranian calligrapher was excellent quality and proficiency, and was often creative in his paintings. Iranian calligraphers invented the Persian line in the seventh century AH (thirteenth century AD). And then invented the line Nstaalik of the Persian line and copies and comment, This innovation was the efforts of the calligrapher Imad al-Din Shirazi al-Hassani, as he established a base known for his name later was named Emad base. They also raised the kufic line and became more densely populated.

The city of Mashhad was famous for the Nostalic line until it almost preceded all the Iranian cities. One of the most important evidence is what was found in the Imam al-Redha mosque with its golden domes. It embodies the creations of the Iranian calligraphers. The lines engraved on domes and minarets testify to their perfection and quality. The calligraphers engraved the lines and decorated on the pieces of ceramics in the streets of the city of Mashhad on many, so that the surfer in it is in an open museum of the Arabic calligraphy. The city of Isfahan, which is said to be half the sides of half the world, was the capital of the Safavid state, which left lines and paintings and decorations very beauty. From these archaeological sites, which contained wonderful lines: the Great Mosque in Isfahan, the Mosque of Latifullah, the forty columns, and the many bridges spread over its great river Zindh Ruud such as Khajo Bridge.

Shahat Fares and her princes were in line. The Mughal Minister Rasheeduddin established a quarter called Rasheed, and Herat became the capital of the line and photography, and Kamaluddin Behzad was the master of photography and the guide of calligraphers. The calligraphy and creativity were not limited to the calligraphers who adopted the line art and profession, but to the princes, rulers and sultans, they found in the copying and calligraphy honor and blessing and glory.

Modern era
The calligraphy of the Arabic calligraphy continued in the modern era after the fall of the Ottoman Empire. Arab calligraphers invented hybrid patterns and lines mixed with line patterns. The crown line was created by the Egyptian calligrapher Muhammad Mahfouz, who was a technical expert in the courts under King Fouad. بحروف التاج لأن الفكرة كانت فكرة صاحب التاج ملك مصر الأسبق فؤاد.It is an expression like a curved averted L and positioned above the head of the character in the form of capital letters in English, so as to guide the reader to what the sentences or words, and was likely to use in the characters of the line of copy because it is beautiful signed by other lines.

Modern calligraphers added a new aesthetic dimension to the Arabic calligraphy. The Arabic calligraphy became a plastic art with its own elements and elements. The painting can be written and composed using multiple colors, one color, black or white, Of the plastic painting, or that the characters in a panel are elements not related to the content, that is, the letters here are forms and structures complementary to the painting only. also appeared in the modern era draws to rely on the computer assistant on the regular writing, and is believed to calligraphers that these programs help to write, but the line can not be written perfectly only learner line familiar with the art of writing, and the proportions consent letters, forms and lengths, obliterating or extended and only That of the rules of writing the calligraphy, and added that the program is best used only by a calligrapher.

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